Preface xxi

Acknowledgments xxiii

Chapter 1 Fraud: An Introduction 1

Fraud: What is It? 2

Fraud: Prevalence, Impact, and Form 3

Fraud in Historical Perspective 4

Types of Fraud 5

Root Causes of Fraud 6

A Historical Account of the Auditor's Role 7

Auditors Are Not Alone 14

Deterrence, Auditing, and Investigation 16

Conceptual Overview of the Fraud Deterrence Cycle 17

First Look Inside the Fraud Deterrence Cycle 19

Auditing and Investigation 22

Chapter 2 Psychology of the Fraudster 25

Calculating Criminals 26

Situation-Dependent Criminals 27

Power Brokers 28

Fraudsters Do Not Intend to Harm 28

Kinds of Rationalization 33

Auditors' Need to Understand the Mind of the Fraudster 33

Conclusion 34

Chapter 3 The Roles of the Auditor and the Forensic Accounting Investigator 37

The Patrolman and the Detective 38

Complexity and Change 41

Auditor Roles in Perspective 42

Not All Good People 44

Each Company is Unique 45

Role of Company Culture 45

Estimates 46

Choices 49

What Auditors Do 50

Bedrock of an Effective Audit 55

SPADE 57

Auditing Standards Take a Risk-Based Approach to Fraud 58

Management Override 60

Regulatory Reaction to Fraud 60

Financial Benefits of Effective Fraud Management 61

Conclusion 61

Chapter 4 Auditor Responsibilities and the Law 63

Appendix: Summary of PCAOB Matters Involving Detection of Fraud 77

Chapter 5 When and Why to Call in Forensic Accounting Investigators 79

Today's Auditors Are Not Forensic Accounting Investigators 80

Auditors Are Not Authenticators 80

Auditors Have Limited Exposure to Fraud 81

Auditors Are Not Guarantors 82

Historically, Audits May Have Been Predictable 83

Potential Trigger Points of Fraud 84

Reliance on Others 91

Conclusion 92

Chapter 6 Internal Audit: The Second Line of Defense 95

What Do Internal Auditors Do? 96

Internal Audit Scope of Services 98

The Handoff to Forensic Accounting Investigators and Legal Counsel 99

Perception Problem 101

Complex Corporate Fraud and the Internal Audit 102

WorldCom and the Thornburgh Report 102

Case Studies: The Internal Auditor Addresses Fraud 103

A Tragic Circumstance 105

Reporting Relationships: A Key to Empowering Fraud Detection 111

Tomorrow's Internal Auditor, Tomorrow's Management and Board 113

Chapter 7 Teaming with Forensic Accounting Investigators 115

Forensic Accounting Investigators' Cooperation with Internal Auditors 117

Forensic Accounting Investigators' Cooperation with External Auditors 120

Objectives of All Interested Parties 122

Forensic Accounting Investigators' Objectives 122

Who Should Direct the Investigation and Why? 126

Ready When Needed 127

Where to Find Skilled Forensic Accounting Investigators 127

Chapter 8 Anonymous Communications 133

Typical Characteristics of Anonymous Tips 134

Federal Statutes Related to Anonymous Reporting and Whistle-Blower Protections 135

Receipt of an Anonymous Communication 139

Initial Understanding of Allegations 140

Determine Whether Any Allegation Requires Immediate Remedial Action 141

Development and Implementation of the Investigative Strategy 142

The Investigation Team 142

Disclosure Decisions 143

Prioritize the Allegations 144

Interviewing Employees 145

Follow-Up Tip 149

Conclusion 150

Chapter 9 Personal Privacy and Public Disclosure 151

Introduction 151

Data Privacy: Providing Context 152

Data Privacy in the United States 153

Data Privacy in the European Union 158

Navigating the Legal Differences Between the United States and the European Union 162

Elsewhere around the Globe 165

Public Disclosure 168

Conclusion 173

Chapter 10 Building a Case: Gathering and Documenting Evidence 175

Critical Steps in Gathering Evidence 176

Whose Evidence is It? 182

Evidence Created by the Forensic Accounting Investigator 183

What Evidence Should Be Gathered? 185

Important Considerations Regarding Documents and Working Papers 186

Conclusion 189

Chapter 11 Independence, Objectivity, Skepticism 191

Accountant's Independence 192

SEC Final Rules for Strengthening Auditor Independence 192

SEC Regulation of Forensic Accounting Services 193

Consulting versus Attest Services 196

Integrity and Objectivity 198

Professional Skepticism 199

Trust but Verify: Exploring Further 203

Loose-Thread Theory of Auditing 207

Further Thoughts on the Loose-Thread Theory 210

Chapter 12 Potential Missteps: Considerations When Fraud is Suspected 213

Confronting Suspects 213

Dismissing the Target 216

Assumptions 217

The Small Stuff Could Be Important 221

Materiality: More on a Key Topic 223

Addressing Allegations 224

The Case of the Central American General Manager 225

Exercising Skepticism 228

Case Outcomes 229

Chapter 13 Potential Red Flags and Fraud Detection Techniques 231

Types of Fraud Revisited 232

Fraud Detection: Overview 233

Laying a Foundation for Detection 236

Interpreting Potential Red Flags 238

Importance of Professional Skepticism 240

Revisiting the Fraud Triangle 243

Identifying and Evaluating Risk Factors 248

Information Gathering 251

Analytic Procedures 254

Analytic Techniques 258

Assessing the Potential Impact of Fraud Risk Factors 260

Evaluating Controls 261

Unpredictable Audit Tests 263

Observation and Inspection 264

Financial Statement Fraud: Detection Techniques 266

Revenue Recognition 267

Corruption 268

Summary 269

Chapter 14 Investigative Techniques 271

Timing 271

Communication 272

Early Administrative Matters 272

Predication 273

What Should You Know before You Start? 275

A Word about Insurance 281

Exceptions and Other Considerations 282

Considerations on International Assignments 283

Accounting Issues 285

Data Analysis 286

Document Review 286

Conclusion 291

Chapter 15 Corporate Intelligence 293

Definition of Corporate Intelligence 293

Evolution of Corporate Intelligence 294

Today's Business Need 297

Legal and Regulatory Drivers of Corporate Intelligence 297

Cost Drivers of Corporate Intelligence 301

Negotiation Drivers of Corporate Intelligence 303

Basic Deployment and Consumption of Corporate Intelligence 304

Customary Data Fields Necessary to Fulfill Corporate Intelligence Remits 306

Analysis and Reporting of Findings 307

Coordination and Selection of Management and External Advisors for Intelligence Gathering 307

Timing of Deployment 308

Limitations of and Inherent Barriers to Corporate Intelligence 308

Legal Parameters and Operating Constraints versus Enabling Ethical Debates Surrounding Corporate Intelligence 313

Summary 315

Chapter 16 The Art of the Interview 317

Difficulty and Value of Obtaining an Admission 318

Planning for the Interview 319

Types of Interviews 321

Others May Wish to Attend Interviews 325

Interview Process 326

Documenting the Interview 330

Use of Subterfuge 331

Summary 331

Chapter 17 Data Mining 333

Definition and Benefits of Data Mining 334

Structured versus Unstructured Data 335

Planning 335

Methods of Data Acquisition 340

Structured Data Analysis 341

Unstructured Data 352

Advanced Data Analysis Tools 358

Conclusion 360

Chapter 18 Report of Investigation 363

Types of Reports 364

Importance of Adequate Preparation 364

Standards of Reporting 365

Written Report of Expert Witness Opining for the Plaintiff on a Civil Fraud Claim 371

Affidavits 374

Informal Reports 374

Giving a Deposition 376

Mistakes to Avoid in Reporting 380

Working Papers 382

Relationship Review 384

Substantive Working Papers 384

Each Working Paper Should Stand on Its Own 384

Testimony Binder 386

Interview Memorandums 386

Chapter 19 Supporting a Criminal Prosecution 389

Key Considerations 390

Referral Considerations 393

Chapter 20 Working with Attorneys 399

In the Company of Lawyers 399

Confidentiality Requirements 400

Forming the Investigative Team 401

Documentation 407

Civil Litigation 408

Interviewing 408

External Audit Firm 409

Working for or Interacting with Law Enforcement or Government Agencies 412

Disagreements with Counsel 413

Conclusion 414

Chapter 21 Financial Reporting Fraud and the Capital Markets 417

Targets of Capital Market Fraud 418

Securities Investment Model 419

Some Observations on Financial Fraud 429

Summary 430

Chapter 22 Financial Statement Fraud: Revenue and Receivables 433

Improper Revenue Recognition 435

Revenue Recognition Detection Techniques 438

Analytical Procedures to Identify or Explore Potential Revenue Red Flags 440

Improper Allocation of Value in Multiple-Element Revenue Arrangements 450