MIKAEL FALLGREN, PHD, is Senior Researcher at Ericsson Research, Stockholm, Sweden. He was project manager of the 5GCAR project, while also serving as chairman of the 5G PPP Automotive Working Group and vice-chair of the 5G PPP Steering Board. He joined Ericsson as Experienced Researcher in 2011 with focus on wireless access networks. He has been involved in several other European Projects, including EARTH, METIS, METIS-II and 5GCroCo.

MARKUS DILLINGER, Dipl.-Ing., is 5G R&D Head for vertical industry, Huawei Technologies, Munich, Germany. He was technical manager of the 5GCAR project. He joined Huawei as Head of Wireless Internet Technologies in 2010 where he led private and public R&D programs for car-to-car, ehealth and automation supporting 3GPP standardization and work for the vertical industry. He is currently member of 5G Health Association and member of 5GAA Executive Committee.

TOKTAM MAHMOODI, PHD, is Reader in Wireless Networks, and Director of the Centre for Telecommunications Research, King's College London, UK. She has worked in telecom industry and led number of research projects in the area of mobile and wireless networks, with applications in tele-health, mission-critical communication, industrial networking, and vehicular networks.

TOMMY SVENSSON, PHD, is full Professor, Chalmers University of Technology, Gothenburg, Sweden. He is leading research on air interface and wireless networking for access, backhaul/ fronthaul in mobile communications. He was deeply involved in European research towards 4G and 5G, and currently towards 6G. He has also experience from Ericsson AB on core-, radio access-, and microwave networks.

List of Contributors xiii

Forewords xvii

Preface xxv

List of Abbreviations xxix

1 Introduction 1

1.1 Background and Motivation for C-V2X 2

1.1.1 Intelligent Transport Systems 2

1.1.2 Connected Automated Driving 3

1.1.3 Connected Road User Services 4

1.2 Toward a Joint Telecom and Automotive Roadmap for CAD 4

1.2.1 Telecom's Ambitions for Connected Driving 4

1.2.2 Automotive's Ambitions for Automated Driving 6

1.2.3 Joint Roadmap for CAD 7

1.3 Communication Technologies for CAD 8

1.3.1 Standardization of IEEE V2X 10

1.3.2 Standardization and Regulation Aspects of C-V2X 12

1.3.2.1 Available C-V2X Releases and Regulations 12

1.3.2.2 Future Requirements for C-V2X Releases and Regulations 13

1.4 Structure of this Book 14

References 18

2 Business Models 21

2.1 Current Market Analysis 22

2.2 Services Definition for CAD and CRU 23

2.2.1 Existing CAD and CRU Services 24

2.2.1.1 Emergency Call 24

2.2.1.2 Remote Diagnostics 24

2.2.1.3 Car Sharing 25

2.2.1.4 OTA Software Updates 25

2.2.1.5 Predictive Maintenance 25

2.2.1.6 Real-Time Road Traffic Management and Vehicle Guidance 25

2.2.2 Emerging CAD Services 25

2.2.2.1 Perception by Wireless Connectivity and Sensor Sharing 26

2.2.2.2 High-Definition Maps 26

2.2.3 Emerging CRU Services 26

2.2.3.1 Video Streaming and Gaming 26

2.2.3.2 Parking Reservations and Payment 26

2.3 Technical Components 27

2.4 Practicalities 28

2.4.1 Profile and SIM Card Provisioning 28

2.4.2 Routing Strategy 28

2.4.3 Roaming and Inter-operator Cooperation 29

2.4.4 Possible Business Model Evolution 29

2.4.4.1 OTA Software Updates 30

2.4.4.2 CAD Services and Related Automation Levels 31

2.5 Business Market Opportunities for V2X 34

2.5.1 CAD Business Model Enabled by 5G 34

2.5.1.1 Passive Infrastructure Sharing 37

2.5.1.2 Active Infrastructure Sharing, Excluding Spectrum Sharing 37

2.5.1.3 Active Infrastructure Sharing, Including Spectrum Sharing 37

2.5.2 Security Provision 38

2.5.2.1 The PKI Workflow 38

2.5.2.2 Enrollment of an ITS Station 39

2.5.2.3 Use of Authorizations Tokens 40

2.5.2.4 The Cost Hypothesis 40

2.5.3 OTA Software Updates 41

2.6 Business Model Analysis of 5G V2X Technical Components 44

2.6.1 Positioning 45

2.6.2 V2X Radio Design 46

2.6.2.1 Predictor Antenna 46

2.6.2.2 Beam-Forming 46

2.6.2.3 Efficiency 49

2.6.2.4 Reliability 49

2.6.2.5 Sidelink Out of Coverage 49

2.6.2.6 Sidelink in Coverage 49

2.6.3 Network Procedures 49

2.6.3.1 Local Standalone Network Procedures 51

2.6.3.2 Network Service Relationship Enhancement 51

2.6.3.3 Multi-Operator Solutions for V2X Communications 53

2.6.3.4 Network Orchestration and Management 53

2.6.4 End-to-End Security 54

2.6.5 Edge Computing Enhancements 55

2.6.6 Summary 58

2.7 Conclusions 58

References 60

3 Standardization and Regulation 63

3.1 Standardization Process Overview 64

3.1.1 General Aspects 64

3.1.2 Standardization and Regulation Bodies Relevant to ITS Specifications 64

3.1.2.1 International Telecommunication Union 65

3.1.2.2 Regional Standards Developing Organizations 66

3.1.2.3 3GPP, IEEE, and SAE 67

3.1.2.4 5G PPP and EATA 67

3.1.2.5 5GAA 68

3.1.3 3GPP Structure and Standardization Process 69

3.2 Regulatory Aspects and Spectrum Allocation 70

3.2.1 C-V2X Policy and Regulations in Europe 71

3.2.2 Radio Frequency Spectrum Allocation for V2X Communications 71

3.2.2.1 Spectrum Allocation for IMT Systems and 3GPP Technologies 71

3.2.2.2 Dedicated Spectrum for ITS Applications 72

3.2.2.3 Worldwide Spectrum Harmonization 73

3.3 Standardization of V2X Communication Technology Solutions 73

3.3.1 A Brief History of V2X Communication 74

3.3.2 Overview of DSRC/C-V2X Specifications Around the Globe 75

[...]ope 75

3.3.2.2 The Americas 76

3.3.2.3 Asia 77

3.3.3 C-V2X Standardization in 3GPP: Toward and Within 5G 79

3.3.3.1 C-V2X in 4G 80

3.3.3.2 C-V2X Supported by 5G 82

3.3.3.3 Future Plans 83

3.4 Application Aspects 84

3.4.1 EU Standardization 86

3.4.2 US Standardization 87

3.5 Summary 87

References 88

4 Spectrum and Channel Modeling 91

4.1 Spectrum and Regulations for V2X Communications 91

4.1.1 Spectrum Bands in Europe 92

4.1.1.1 ITS Spectrum at 5.9 GHz 92

4.1.1.2 5.8 GHz Frequency for Toll Collection 93

4.1.1.3 60 GHz ITS Band 93

4.1.1.4 IMT Bands in Europe 93

4.1.2 Spectrum Bands in Other Regions 94

4.1.2.1 United States 94

4.1.2.2 China 95

4.1.2.3 Other Regions of the World 96

4.1.3 Spectrum Auctions Worldwide 96

[...]ope 96

4.1.3.2 United States 104

4.1.3.3 Asia 105

4.1.3.4 Summary of Auctions and Cost Comparison Worldwide 108

4.1.4 Spectrum Harmonization Worldwide 111

[...]ope and Digital Single Market 111

4.1.4.2 World Radiocommunication Conference 2019 111

4.1.5 Summary 112

4.2 Channel Modeling 113

4.2.1 Propagation Environments 114

4.2.1.1 Link Types 114

4.2.1.2 Environments 114

4.2.2 Channel-Modeling Framework and Gap Analysis 116

4.2.3 Path-Loss Models 116

4.2.3.1 Path-Loss for V2V LOS Links 116

4.2.3.2 Shadow-Fading Models 121

4.2.3.3 Fast-Fading Parameters 122

4.2.3.4 Summary 123

4.2.4 Recent V2X Channel Measurements and Models 124

4.2.4.1 V2V Measurements in cmWave and mmWave 124

4.2.4.2 mmWave V2V (Sidelink) Channel Modeling 124

4.2.4.3 Multi-Link Shadowing Extensions 132

4.2.5 Summary 134

References 135

5 V2X Radio Interface 137

5.1 Beamforming Techniques for V2X Communication in the mm-Wave Spectrum 138

5.1.1 Beam Refinement for Mobile Multi-User Scenarios 139

5.1.1.1 Algorithm Description 140

5.1.1.2 Illustrative Performance Results 140

5.1.2 Beamformed Multicasting 143

5.1.3 Beam-Based Broadcasting 147

5.2 PHY and MAC Layer Extensions 152

5.2.1 Channel State Information Acquisition and MU-MIMO Receiver Design 152

5.2.1.1 The Importance and Challenges of Channel State Information Acquisition in MU-MIMO Systems 152

5.2.1.2 Interplay Between CSIR Acquisition and MU-MIMO Receiver Design 153

5.2.1.3 Novel Approaches to Near-Optimal MU-MIMO Linear Receiver Design and the Impact of CSIR Errors 156

5.2.1.4 Performance Modeling and Numerical Results in Multi-Antenna Cellular Vehicle Scenarios 157

5.2.2 Reference Signal Design 159

5.2.2.1 Challenges to CSI Acquisition in V2V Sidelink Communication 159

5.2.2.2 Reference Signal Design for V2V Sidelink 160

5.2.2.3 Performance Evaluation 163

5.2.3 Synchronization 164

5.2.4 Scheduling and Power Control 168

5.3 Technology Features Enabled by Vehicular Sidelink 172

5.3.1 UE Cooperation for Enhancing Reliability 173

5.3.1.1 Communication Scenario 173

5.3.1.2 Reliability Analysis - Channels with Equal Power 174

5.3.1.3 Evaluation 176

5.3.1.4 System Design Aspects 178

5.3.2 Full Duplex 181

5.3.2.1 Advantages of Full-Duplex Radio for C-V2X 182

5.4 Summary 184

References 185

6 Network Enhancements 191

6.1 Network Slicing 192

6.1.1 Network Slicing and 3GPP 192

6.1.2 Network Slicing and V2X 194

6.2 Role of SDN and NFV in V2X 196

6.3 Cloudified Architecture 199

6.4 Local End-to-End Path 200

6.5 Multi-Operator Support 202

6.6 Summary 205

References 205

7 Enhancements to Support V2X Application Adaptations 207

7.1 Background 208

7.2 Enhanced Application-Network Interaction for Handling V2X Use Cases 210

7.2.1 C-V2X Connectivity Negotiation 210

7.2.2 Use-Case-Aware Multi-RAT Multi-Link Connectivity 212

7.2.3 Location-Aware Scheduling 214

7.3 Redundant Scheduler for Sidelink and Uu 215

7.3.1 Application or Facilities Layer 216

7.3.2 Transport Level 219

7.3.3 RRC Level 220

7.4 Summary 221

References 221

8 Radio-Based Positioning and Video-Based Positioning 223

8.1 Radio-Based Positioning 225

8.1.1 Use Cases and Requirements 225

8.1.2 Radio-Based Positioning in New Radio Release 16 226

8.1.3 Radio-Based Positioning Beyond Release 16 228

8.1.3.1 The mmWave Channel 228

8.1.3.2 Signal Design 229

8.1.3.3 The Measurement Process 230

8.1.3.4 Localization, Mapping, and Tracking 231

8.1.4 Technology Component Complementation 233

8.1.5 Limitations of Radio-Based Positioning 235

8.1.6 Summary 236

8.2 Video-Based Positioning 237

8.2.1 Vehicle Positioning System Setup 237

8.2.2 Multi-Camera Calibration 239

8.2.3 Vehicle Detection 240

8.2.4 Vehicle Tracking 241

8.2.5 Vehicle Localization 241

8.2.6 Accuracy Evaluation 242

8.2.7 Summary 245

8.3 Conclusions 246

References 246

9 Security and Privacy 251

9.1 V2N Security 252

9.1.1 Security Challenges 253

9.1.2 Isolation Challenges 254

9.1.2.1 System Isolation (Between ECUs) 254

9.1.2.2 Network Isolation (Between Network Slices) 254

9.1.3 Software-Defined Vehicular Networking Security 255

9.1.3.1...