List of Contributors xxi

Series Preface xxv

Preface xxvii

I Historical Development 1

1 History of Natural Dyes in the Ancient Mediterranean Civilization 3
Maria J. Melo

1.1 Introduction 3

1.1.1 Ancient Mediterranean World 3

1.1.2 Dyes from Antiquity 4

1.1.3 Unveiling the Secrets of Ancient Dyes with Modern Science 7

1.2 Ancient Reds 7

1.2.1 Anthraquinone Reds 7

1.2.2 Redwoods 10

1.2.3 Flavylium/Anthocyanin Reds 12

1.2.3.1 Equilibria in solution 13

1.3 Ancient Blues 14

1.3.1 Indigo Blues 14

1.3.2 Anthocyanin Blues 15

1.4 Ancient Purples 16

1.4.1 Tyrian Purple: Real Purple from Sea Snails 16

1.4.2 Orchil Purples 18

1.4.3 Folium 18

1.5 Ancient Yellows 20

1.5.1 Flavonoid Yellows 20

1.5.2 Carotenoid Yellows 21

1.5.3 Chalcone and Aurone Yellows 22

Acknowledgements 22

References 22

2 Colors in Civilizations of the World and Natural Colorants: History under Tension 27
Dominique Cardon

2.1 Introduction 27

2.2 The Triumph of Mauveine: Synthetic Fulfillment of the Antique Purplemania 28

2.3 Blue: From Kingly Regional to Globally Democratic 29

2.4 Red and Yellow: From Micro to Macro Scales 29

2.5 What Is the Future for Natural Colorants in the Dawning Era of Renewable Resources? 30

Acknowledgement 31

References 31

3 History of Natural Dyes in North Africa_Egypt 33
Harby Ezzeldeen Ahmed

3.1 Introduction 33

3.2 Natural Dyes in Pharaonic Textiles 34

3.3 Dyeing Techniques 34

3.4 Dye Sources 34

3.4.1 Woad 35

3.4.2 Indigo 35

3.4.3 Red 35

3.4.4 Yellow 36

3.4.5 Black 36

3.4.6 Brown 36

3.4.7 Green 36

3.4.8 Purple 36

3.5 Dyeing in Coptic Textiles 36

3.6 Wool- Dyed Fabric with Natural Dye 38

3.7 Dyes in Islamic Textiles 38

3.8 Mordants 40

References 40

II Natural Colorants in Different Regions of the World 43

4 Sources for Natural Colorants in Europe 45
Thomas Bechtold, Tung Pham and Avinash P. Manian

4.1 Introduction 45

4.2 Cultivation 46

4.2.1 Potential European Dye Plants Yesterday and Now 46

4.2.2 Modern Cultivation Methods-- General Facts 47

4.2.3 Blue- Dye Plants 48

4.2.4 Red- Dye Plants 49

4.2.5 Yellow- Dye Plants 49

4.2.6 Brown- Dye Plants 52

4.2.7 Production of Dye Extracts 54

4.3 Natural Colorants from Agro- Food Residues 55

4.4 Natural Colorants from Forestry and Timber Industry 56

4.5 Relevant Examples for the Application 57

4.6 Conclusions, Discussion, and Summary 58

Acknowledgement 58

References 59

5 Dyes in South America 63
Veridiana Vera de Rosso and Adriana Zerlotti Mercadante

5.1 Introduction 63

5.2 Annatto 65

5.3 Turmeric 67

5.4 Marigold 68

5.5 Cochineal and Carmine 69

Acknowledgements 71

References 71

6 Natural Dyes in Eastern Asia (Vietnam and Neighboring Countries) 75
Tung Pham and Thomas Bechtold

6.1 Introduction 75

6.2 Annatto (Bixa orellana L., Family Bixaceae) 75

6.3 Tea (Camellia sinensis (L.) Kuntze, Family Theaceae) 77

6.4 Umbrella Tree (Terminalia catappa L., Family Combretaceae) 77

6.5 Mackloeur (Diospyros mollis L. Griff, Family Ebenaceae) 78

6.6 Indigo (Indigofera L., Family Fabaceae) 79

6.6.1 Indigofera tinctoria L. 79

6.6.2 Indigofera galegoides dc 80

6.6.3 Strobilanthes cusia (Baphicacanthus) 80

6.7 Henna (Kok Khan or Khao Youak in Laos) (Lawsonia spinosa L., Family Lythraceae) 80

6.8 Nacre (African Mahogany, Khaya senegalensis, Family Meliaceae) 81

6.9 Sappan Wood (Caesalpinia sappan L., Family Fabaceae) 81

6.10 Japanese Pagoda Tree Flowers (Sophora japonica L., Family Leguminosae) 82

6.11 Turmeric (Curcuma longa L., Family Zingiberaceae) 82

6.12 Sapodilla (Manilkara zapota L. or Achras zapota, Family Sapotaceae) 82

6.13 Betel (Piper betel L., Family Piperaceae) 83

6.14 Eucalyptus (Eucalyptus, Family Myrtaceae) 83

6.15 Caesalpinia Yellow (Caesalpinia pulcherrima L., Family Fabaceae) 83

6.16 Brow- Tuber; Yam (Dioscorea cirrhosa Lour, Family Dioscoreaceae) 83

6.17 Others 84

Acknowledgement 84

References 84

7 Sources for Natural Colorants in China 89
Ren-Cheng Tang

7.1 Introduction 89

7.2 Sophora japonica Yellow 92

7.3 Turmeric 93

7.4 Gardenia Yellow 93

7.5 Emodin 93

7.6 Baicalin 94

7.7 Berberine 94

7.8 Henna 94

7.9 Monascus Red 95

7.10 Madder 95

7.11 Sorghum Red 95

7.12 Mulberry Red 96

7.13 Shikonin 96

7.14 Indigo 96

7.15 Condensed Tannins 97

7.16 Tea Polyphenols 98

7.17 Gallnut 99

References 99

8 Sources, Application, and Analysis of Natural Colorants: An Indian Perspective 103
Prof. (Dr.) Ashis Kumar Samanta and Prof. (Dr.) Deepali Singhee

8.1 Introduction 103

8.2 Natural Dyes in India 104

8.2.1 History 104

8.2.2 Traditional Processes of Dyeing with Natural Dyes in Different Parts of India 105

8.2.3 Sources of Natural Dyes in India 106

8.2.4 Use of Some Natural Dyes in Traditional Textiles of India 107

8.3 Details of Some Dye Sources and Their Application in India 109

8.3.1 Turmeric 109

8.3.2 Pomegranate 111

8.3.3 Flame of Forest 114

8.3.4 Marigold 116

8.3.5 Safflower 118

8.3.6 Annatto 120

8.3.7 Madder 123

8.3.8 Indian Mulberry 125

8.3.9 Arjuna 127

8.3.10 Sappanwood 130

8.3.11 Eucalyptus 132

8.3.12 Catechu 134

8.3.13 Gallnut 137

8.3.14 Myrobolan 140

8.3.15 Lac 142

8.3.16 Indigo 145

References 147

9 Natural Dye Gardens in North America 161
Wendy Weiss and Thomas Bechtold

9.1 Introduction 161

9.2 Participants 162

9.3 Education 163

9.4 Motivation to Work with Natural Dye 166

9.5 Plant List-- Cultivated Plants 166

9.6 Chemical Background of Most Relevant Plants 168

9.7 Plant List-- Foraged Plants 172

9.8 Plants with Indigotin 172

9.9 Importance of the Fibershed Movement 173

9.10 Educational and Community Gardens 174

9.11 Mexico 177

9.12 Canada 177

9.13 Future Research 178

References 178

Notes 179

III Colorant Production and Properties 181

10 Chlorophylls 183
María Roca

10.1 Introduction 183

10.2 Chemical Structures and Physicochemical Properties 184

10.3 Chlorophylls as Colorants 187

10.4 New Trends in the Use of Chlorophylls as Colorants 189

10.5 Stability and Analysis 190

10.6 Toxicological and Safety Aspects 191

References 192

11 Indigo-- Production and Properties 195
Philip John and Luciana Gabriella Angelini

11.1 Introduction 195

11.2 Agronomy 196

11.2.1 Isatis 196

11.2.1.1 Developmental Stages and Climate and Soil Crop Requirements 197

11.2.1.2 Rotation 201

11.2.1.3 Soil Tillage and Seed Sowing 202

11.2.1.4 Weeds, Pests, and Diseases 203

11.2.1.5 Fertilizers and Irrigation 204

11.2.1.6 Harvesting and Yields 205

11.2.1.7 Seed Production 207

11.2.1.8 Isatis indigotica Compared with Isatis tinctoria 208

11.2.2 Persicaria 209

11.2.2.1 Introduction 209

11.2.2.2 Developmental Stages 211

11.2.2.3 Sowing, Harvesting, and Yield 211

11.2.2.4 Weeds, Pests, and Diseases 216

11.2.2.5 Fertilizer and Irrigation Requirement 216

11.2.2.6 Seed Production 217

11.2.3 Indigofera 217

11.3 Methods of Determining Indigo 219

11.4 Precursors in the Plants 222

11.5 Direct Dyeing with Indican 227

11.6 Indigo Formation 227

11.7 Extraction Procedures 229

11.7.1 Traditional Process Using Crushed Leaf Material 229

11.7.1.1 Isatis 229

11.7.1.2 Persicaria 230

11.7.2 Steeping in Water 231

11.7.2.1 Indigofera 232

11.7.2.2 Isatis 234

11.7.2.3 Persicaria 239

11.8 Purity of Natural Indigo 240

11.8.1 Purification by Sublimation 241

11.8.2 Impurities in Natural Indigo 242

Acknowledgements 245

References 245

12 Anthocyanins: Revisiting Nature's Glamorous Palette 251
Maria J. Melo, Fernando Pina, Natércia Teixeira and Claude Andary

12.1 Chemical Basis 251

12.1.1 Chemical Structures 251

12.1.2 Equilibria in Solution 253

12.1.3 Kinetics 254

12.1.4 Color and Color Stability 254

12.1.5 Anthocyanins as Antioxidants 258

12.2 Natural Sources and Applications for Anthocyanins 259

12.2.1 Plants Sources, Content, Influencing Parameters 259

12.2.2 Food Colorants 260

12.2.3 Other Uses 261

12.2.4 Examples of Commercial Products and Processing 262

References 263

Appendix 1 267

A1.1 Multi-Equilibria in Acidic and Basic Media 267

A1.2 Measuring the Equilibria Constants 269

13 Natural Colorants-- Quinoid, Naphthoquinoid, and Anthraquinoid Dyes 271
Goverdina C. H. Derksen and Thomas Bechtold

13.1 Introduction 271

13.2 Benzoquinone Dyes 271

13.3 Diaryloylmethane Dyes 273

13.4 Naphthoquinone Dyes 273

13.4.1 Lawson (2- hydroxy- 1,4- naphthoquinone, CI Natural Orange 6) 274

13.4.1.1 Properties and Use 274

13.4.1.2 Agricultural Aspects 276

13.4.2 Juglone (5- hydroxy- 1,4- naphthoquinone, CI Natural Brown 7) 278

13.5 Anthraquinone Dyes 279

13.5.1 Main Components Emodin and Chrysophanol-- Rheum and Rumex Species...