Mining engineer Tom Morrison has written technical histories on mining and aviation. He lives in Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada.

Table of Contents

Preface1

Introduction3

Part One: Background to Locomotive Development

Chapter 1. The American Railroad Industry12

1.1 Political and Economic Environment12

1.1.1 Early Years of the Industry12

1.1.2 Depression and New Expansion13

1.1.3 The New Political Climate16

1.1.4 War and Government Administration21

1.1.5 The 1920s22

1.1.6 The Depression Years24

1.1.7 War and Aftermath27

1.2 Size and Extent of the Railroad and Locomotive Building Industries28

1.2.1 The Railroad Industry28

1.2.2 Locomotive Building31

1.3 Railroad Engineering35

1.3.1 Management Science and the ­Ton-Mile Statistic35

1.3.2 Locomotive and Train Operating Costs35

1.3.3 The Trend to Bigger Equipment37

1.3.4 The Trend to Higher Speeds39

1.3.5 Track and Substructures41

1.3.6 Signaling Systems42

1.3.7 Integrated Improvement Programs43

1.3.8 Maintenance and Availability48

1.3.9 Working Conditions52

1.3.10 Safety55

1.3.11 The Motive Power Dilemma and the End of Steam58

Part Two: Compounds and Mastodons, 1895-1905

Chapter 2. General Steam Locomotive Development, 1895-190564

Chapter 3. Locomotive Engineering, 1895-190576

3.1 Fuels, Firing and Fuel Economy76

3.1.1 Coal76

3.1.2 Oil76

3.1.3 Coal Firing77

3.1.4 Mechanical Stokers79

3.1.5 Firing Rates80

3.1.6 Fuel Economy80

3.2 Fireboxes and Combustion82

3.2.1 Fireboxes82

3.2.2 The Vanderbilt Boiler86

3.2.3 ­Water-Tube Boilers87

3.2.4 Grates87

3.2.5 Brick Arches88

3.2.6 Crownsheet Failures and Boiler Explosions90

3.3. Boilers and Steam Generation92

3.3.1 Boilers92

3.3.2 Water Quality93

3.3.3 Steam Generation93

3.3.4 Water Gauge Glasses95

3.3.5 Injectors96

3.3.6 Feed Water Heaters96

3.3.7 Superheating97

3.4 Smokeboxes and Drafting99

3.5 Cylinder Arrangements and Compounding103

3.5.1 Cylinder Arrangements103

3.5.2 Compounding104

3.5.2.1 Early Compound Locomotives105

3.5.2.2 Compounds in Americä106

3.5.2.3 Road Tests, Performance and Service Results109

3.5.2.4 Reappearance of the Tandem Compound111

3.5.2.5 The ­Four-Cylinder Balanced Compound111

3.5.2.6 The Mallet ­Four-Cylinder Articulated Compound113

3.6 Valves and Valve Gear113

3.6.1 Valves113

3.6.1.1 Slide Valves113

3.6.1.2 Piston Valves116

3.6.2 Valve Gear117

3.7 Frames and Running Gear118

3.7.1 Frames118

3.7.2 Accommodation to Curvature119

3.7.3 Suspension120

3.7.4 Counterbalancing122

3.7.5 Internal Friction124

3.7.6 Brakes124

3.8 Performance Testing and Design124

3.8.1 Road Tests125

3.8.2 Static Test Plants127

3.8.3 Tonnage Rating128

3.8.4 Design130

Chapter 4. Locomotive Construction, 1895-1905133

4.1 Development of the 4-4-0133

4.2 Fast Passenger Locomotives136

4.2.1 The Last 4-2-2s136

4.2.2 The Abortive Columbia Wheel Arrangement136

4.2.3 Pursuit of High Power at High Speed: The First Atlantics137

4.2.4 Heavy Passenger Power: The First Pacifics144

4.3 ­Six-Coupled, ­Multi-Purpose Locomotives148

4.3.1 ­Multi-Purpose ­Ten-Wheelers148

4.3.2 Mogul Freight Locomotives152

4.3.3 Further Pursuit of High Power at High Speed: The First Prairies154

4.4 Heavy Freight Locomotives157

4.4.1 Consolidations158

4.4.2 Mastodons168

4.4.3 The First Mikados170

4.4.4 Decapods and the First Santa Fes173

4.5 Switchers, Suburbans, Geared and ­Special-Purpose Locomotives174

4.5.1 Switchers174

4.5.2 Suburban Locomotives176

4.5.3 Geared Locomotives177

4.5.4 Other Unconventional Locomotives182

Chapter 5.Traction Other Than Steam, 1895-1905186

5.1 Electric Traction186

5.2 Internal Combustion Traction188

Part Three: Transformation, 1905-1920

Chapter 6.General Steam Locomotive Development, 1905-1920190

Chapter 7.Locomotive Engineering, 1905-1920200

7.1 Fuels, Firing and Fuel Economy200

7.1.1 Coal200

7.1.2 Oil201

7.1.3 Coal Firing202

7.1.4 Mechanical Stokers203

7.1.5 Fuel Economy211

7.2. Fireboxes and Combustion212

7.2.1 Combustion212

7.2.2 Ash Pans214

7.2.3 Brick Arches214

7.2.4 Combustion Chambers216

7.2.5 Thermic Siphons217

7.2.6 Problems of the Staybolted Firebox218

7.2.7 The Wood Corrugated Firebox219

7.2.8 The ­Jacobs-Shupert Firebox219

7.2.9 ­Water-Tube Fireboxes220

7.2.10 Boiler Explosions221

7.3 Boilers and Steam Generation223

7.3.1 Boiler Pressures223

7.3.2 Water Circulation223

7.3.3 Boiler Washing and Water Treatment224

7.3.4 Superheat226

7.3.5 Feed Water Heaters232

7.4 Cylinder Arrangements, Valves and Valve Gear233

7.4.1 Compounding233

7.4.2 The End of Compounding in Americä235

7.4.3 Valves and Valve Gears237

7.4.4 Power Reversers240

7.5 Front Ends242

7.6 Frames and Running Gear244

7.6.1 Frames244

7.6.2 Counterbalancing245

7.7 Performance and Performance Testing246

7.7.1 Performance Testing246

7.7.1.1 Static Test Plants246

7.7.1.2 Development Work on the Pennsylvania Test Plant246

7.7.2 Performance Calculations251

7.7.2.1 Locomotive Performance251

7.7.2.2 Train Resistance252

Chapter 8.Locomotive Construction, 1905-1920254

8.1 Passenger Locomotives255

8.1.1 Obsolescent Types: 4-4-0s, 4-6-0s, 2-6-0s and 2-6-2s255

8.1.2 Heyday of the Atlantics260

8.1.3 The 4-4-4263

8.1.4 Growth of the Pacifics264

8.1.5 The First Mountains278

8.2 ­Rigid-Frame Freight Locomotives282

8.2.1 The Consolidation Becomes Obsolete282

8.2.2 Reign of the Mikados287

8.2.3 Decapods295

8.2.4 Heyday of the Santa Fe296

8.3 Mallets303

8.4 Switchers335

Chapter 9.Traction Other Than Steam, 1905-1920340

9.1 Electric Traction340

9.2 Internal Combustion Traction342

Part Four: Superpower, 1920-1930

Chapter 10.General Steam Locomotive Development, 1920-1930346

Chapter 11.Locomotive Engineering, 1920-1930359

11.1 Fuels, Firing and Fuel Economy359

11.1.1 Coal359

11.1.2 Oil359

11.1.3 Firebox and Grate Design360

11.1.4 Power Stokers361

11.1.5 Fuel Efficiency363

11.2 Boilers and Steam Generation364

11.2.1 Steam Generation364

11.2.2 Pressures in ­Fire-Tube Boilers365

11.2.3 ­Water-Tube Boilers366

11.2.4 Feed Water Heaters371

11.2.5 Exhaust Steam Injectors374

11.2.6 Boiler Washing and Water Quality374

11.2.7 Water Gauges375

11.2.8 Boiler Explosions376

11.3 Cylinders and Valve Gear378

11.3.1 ­Three-Cylinder Locomotives378

11.3.2 Compounding383

11.3.3 Boosters384

11.3.4 ­Cut-off Control385

11.3.4.1 Limited ­Cut-off385

11.3.4.2 ­Cut-off Instrumentation385

11.3.4.3 Automatic ­Cut-off Control386

11.4 Front Ends387

11.4.1 Improved ­Exhaust-Blast Drafting387

11.4.2 Fan Drafting389

11.5 Frames and Running Gear389

11.5.1 Counterbalancing389

11.5.2 Frames390

11.5.3 Trucks391

11.5.4 Tandem Side Rods392

Chapter 12.Locomotive Construction, 1920-1930394

12.1 Passenger Locomotives394

12.1.1 The Last ­Ten-Wheelers394

12.1.2 Twilight of the Pacifics395

12.1.3 The Mountains Hold On400

12.1.4 The First Hudsons405

12.1.5 The 4-8-4: The Ultimate ­Multi-Purpose Locomotive406

12.2 Freight Locomotives410

12.2.1 Last of the Consolidations and Decapods410

12.2.2 End of the Line for the Santa Fes411

12.2.3 The Union Pacific Type412

12.2.4 Mighty Mikados415

12.2.5 Superpower: The Berkshires418

12.2.6 Superpower: The Texas Type421

12.2.7 Coming of the Simple Mallets424

12.3 Switchers429

Chapter 13.Traction Other Than Steam, 1920-1930432

13.1 Electric Traction432

13.2 ­Internal Combustion Traction433

Part Five: Finest and Final, 1930-1950

Chapter 14.General Steam Locomotive Development, 1930-1950438

Chapter 15.Locomotive Engineering, 1930-1950454

15.1 Fuels, Combustion, Firing and Fuel Economy454

15.1.1 Fuels454

15.1.2 Fireboxes and Combustion454

15.1.3 Power Stokers456

15.1.4 Fuel Economy457

15.2 Boilers and Steam Generation457

15.2.1 Boiler Pressures in ­Fire-Tube Boilers457

15.2.2 ­Water-Tube Boilers459

15.2.3 Boiler Maintenance and Water Quality462

15.2.4 Superheat463

15.2.5 Injectors and Feed Water Heaters464

15.2.6 Welded Boilers464

15.2.7 Boiler Explosions465

15.3 Steam Application, Valves and Valve Gear467

15.3.1 Reversing Gear467

15.3.2 Boosters467

15.3.3 Poppet Valves467

15.3.4 ­Steam-Turbine Locomotives469

15.3.5 Duplex Drive473

15.3.6 ­High-Pressure Reciprocating Engines474

15.4 Front Ends474

15.5 Frames and Running Gear478

15.5.1 Engine Beds478

15.5.2 Roller Bearings478

15.5.3 Disc Driving Wheels480

15.5.4 Tenders481

15.5.5 Counterbalancing and Effects on Track481

15.5.6 Streamlining and Decoration484

Chapter 16.Locomotive Construction, 1930-1950491

16.1 ­Multi-Purpose 4-8-4s493

16.2 Passenger Locomotives504

16.2.1 Last of the Pacifics504

16.2.2 Triumph of the Hudsons506

16.2.3 The...